Circumcision - Why The Knife?

The definition of circumcision is the act of removing all or part of the penis' foreskin (prepuce). The word "circumcision" is a derivative of the Latin phrases that means "cut around." The word "circum" means "around" and "caedere" means "to cut." Unbeknownst to many, there are also various forms of female circumcisions that are practiced for a variety of reasons. Some circumcisions are utilized strictly for religion purposes, while others are performed due to medical and cultural reasons. Additionally, some adults decide to undergo elective surgery in order to circumcise their genital due to aesthetic or body modifications reasons.

The Egyptians are the oldest known practitioners of circumcision. Shortly after, the practice was used by Semitic peoples and they have continued the tradition to this day. Greeks and Romans also utilized circumcision to a point, but many rejected the procedure as it was not mandatory.

The leading religions that view circumcision as a mandatory procedure are Islam and Judaism, though it is viewed as more important by Judaism. Male children of Jewish descent are circumcised in a ritual exactly eight days after their birth unless health issues prevent it. While Islam also promotes the act, the ceremony is much less traditional and the practice is carried out in a less formal manner, though most still recognize the 8th day of life as the time to do so. The primary difference between Islam and Judaism is that Jewish male children's circumcisions are performed by religious figures called "mohels" while Muslim families most often prefer to have the surgery take place by a physician.

One notable fact about circumcision is that the Roman Catholic Church formerly rejected the practice of circumcision in 1442 at the Council of Florence. Even so, both the Ethiopian Orthodox and Coptic Christian churches remain to view circumcision as a mandatory practice to this day. Additionally, most Australian Aboriginal and African religious traditions view circumcision as a passage rite for their communities' young males. Animist groups located in West Africa such as the Dowayo and Dogan view circumcision as a procedure to remove a man's "feminine" parts, effectively entering him into manhood. Other people, such as the Nilotics, utilize circumcision to categorize their males into different sets of age.

As abundant as the practice seems, only the United States, South Korea and Philippines routinely utilize circumcision for reasons other than religion. In fact, it wasn't until after the Korean War and the United States influence on South Korea did the South Koreans integrate the practice into their culture.

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Costa Rica Mountain Biking - Volcano To Volcano By Mountain Bike!

Booking yourself and your friends on a Costa Rica mountain biking tour is essential, if you're ready for exciting mountain biking with a difference!

How about getting dropped off at a magnificent 10 000 feet high volcano, and biking down a 7 mile descent to the foothills of the volcano next door?

Or riding all day through lush rain forests with 800 species of birds - not to mention the primates and crocodiles!

Costa Rica mountain biking is full of these and other exciting rides. The routes feature active volcanoes, very high mountain passes, lush tropical, sub-tropical and temperate forests, waterfalls, and river crossings.

As most of Costa Rica's roads are dirt, the country easily lends itself to exploration by mountain bike. It is also extremely hilly, with many heart-stopping descents! Costa Rica mountain biking has trails suitable for riders just starting out, as well as experienced bikers looking for a challenge.

Your Costa Rica mountain biking adventure can start with a guided drive up to the top of the Irazu Volcano at 11,000 feet. Descend to 1,500 feet through miles of lush, green scenery, ending in the small town of Santa Cruz de Turrialba. If your timing is right, you may even get a taste of the Turrialba cheese fair!

The dirt road takes you through fertile dairy and farm land, cutting its way between the Irazu and Turrialba Volcano. A support van, with a driver and a guide-mechanic are available with extra bikes, food, and a first aid kit.

Alternatively, Costa Rica mountain biking can take you to the Aguila de Osa Inn from where you will be able to undertake many local rides on the bikes they provide. Most of the rides are between 1 and 3 hours in duration, and cover a wide variety of landscapes, from beach rides to river canyons (including suspension bridges!) to forests and farm areas.

The Costa Rica mountain biking experience truly is in a class of its own.

Quepos offers a number of guided biking trails. A combination bike/boat tour, will have you floating through a mangrove forest. Excellent backup is provided on the trail, as well as entertaining information about the fauna and flora.

Join an exclusive ride clinic and use your Costa Rica mountain biking travels to learn new skills, in spectacular surroundings.

Bikes are very well equipped, and safety is always taken into consideration. Romantic sunset rides are also available during high season. This is a very pleasurable way to beat the heat!

While Costa Rica mountain biking may seem more adventurous riding on your own, the conditions often make the presence of a guide preferable. You may just end up appreciating that support van after a tiring, fun-filled day...

If you want to combine Costa Rica mountain biking with other great adventures, you will find tours that include snorkeling the reefs of the Caribbean, or river rafting on the many great rivers, or just straightforward hiking with beautiful views and scenery.

A Costa Rica mountain biking tour is usually followed by delighted comments, about the fact that the places visited were not swarming with other bikers!

All of this is probably only possible with a Costa Rica mountain biking package, where over a quarter of the country was designated forever wild...

For more information visit Best-Mountain-Biking.com

Rika Susan of http://www.Article-Alert.com researches, writes, and publishes full-time on the Web.

Copyright of this article: 2006 Rika Susan. This article may be reprinted if the resource box - including the link - is left intact.

Generic Drugs and Online Pharmacies

Even someone who has been living under a rock for the last five or so years would be aware of the confusion, misconception and questions that exist regarding generic prescription drugs, especially the largest selling online, by far, Viagra (Sildenafil Citrate) and other drugs used for the treatment of erectile dysfunction.

Some people believe much of the misinformation published by those who would have them pay ten times more for genuine drugs rather than the far cheaper generic versions. Much of the confusion and misconception exists because, understandably, many cant see how the generic drug can be the same thing but be so cheap. Well, here is why the vast difference exists. Its no secret, nor is it difficult to understand. Its simply economics versus opportunism (although sometimes justified).

The following applies to all generic drugs sold through online pharmacies and in retail pharmacies on the street. There is no difference.

When the drug is first researched, discovered and developed, it takes a number of years and many, many millions (if not billions) of dollars in research, failure, more research, testing through multiple stages. Then come the trials, which have to satisfy the likes of the FDA (most countries have their own version of the FDA), which can, again, take years and more millions and even still fail for one reason or another.

Once the drug is approved by the authorities as safe (or relatively so, with the appropriate warnings), the drug company then have to spend more millions and months marketing and promoting it to the public and the medical profession and wait for them to become confident in the product. Then comes the mass manufacture, packaging, wholesaling, and distribution etc of the tablets or whatever form the drug tales.

Interestingly, for instance, from the time the patent was taken out on Viagra in 1993 it took five years, till 1998, before it could be sold. Huge investments in money, time and resources, which the drug company (and shareholders) needed desperately to recover, hopefully in short order. Who can blame them, really? Its a huge investment and huge risk with any new drug and some dont end up being worthwhile.

Thats why any original drug is relatively expensive compared to it's generic counterpart. At least for the first decade or so, while these enormous investments are being recovered. Very simple indeed.

Now for generic drugs, of which there are many. First of all, they are generally manufactured overseas because of cheaper labor and production costs and also because the patent doesnt allow for them to be made or sold in the U.S. (if that's where they were originally discovered and patented) except by the patent owner. They can however, be imported, in personal quantities by individuals, in most countries.

Before we go any further, as I said, many other countries have their own versions of the FDA, which are every bit as stringent and effective. Those countries that dont have such an authority rely on the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) to approve and monitor the manufacture of already proven pharmaceuticals. Lets face it, when people get sick in Australia, Britain, India, Russia, China, Japan etc and take the drugs made in their own country, they get better. The U.S is NOT the only place in the world that can be trusted to make quality, safe and effective pharmaceuticals. It would be silly and cynical to think so.

In fact, it may surprise some that the bulk ingredients for some so-called 'US manufactured' drugs are actually imported from other countries, so lets be realistic!

The Generic drug that is purchased online is GENERALLY made in pharmaceutical facilities, which are approved by authorities much the same as the FDA and/or W.H.O. It is also interesting to note that vast amounts of GENERIC drugs like antibiotics, immunizations, birth control pills and even Viagra are used by the likes of W.H.O., World Vision and the Red Cross etc in their humanitarian endeavors because of their vastly cheaper prices. If they're good enough for The Red Cross, are they good enough for you? I think so...

Generic Drugs that are sold through Online Pharmacies are so cheap because of the cheaper labor in other countries, but more so because of the obvious following reasons:

NO huge initial investment to recover.
NO wholesalers, distributors or retailers, they are shipped to the client from the manufacturer.
NO transport costs between three, four or often five of the above organizations.
NO stock needs to be kept by any of these non-existent middlemen or Pharmacies.
NO bricks and mortar premises need to be maintained by the middlemen or the Pharmacies.

So you see, the ongoing mark-ups or profits from each of these middlemen dont exist because they dont exist, just the price from the manufacturer and their commission to the referring Online Pharmacy.

In closing, I must admit that there ARE counterfeit drugs and there are drugs, which dont contain much of the effective ingredient. This problem is seen more so in drugs like Viagra, cialis and Levitra (the ED drugs) because of their popularity but STILL, these account for a very small percentage indeed, of the quality generic drugs sold online. People are still buying online drugs in droves and they wouldnt continue to do that if they were having bad or questionable experiences, would they?

Its also been discovered that the counterfeit drugs that everyone seems to condemn online Pharmacies over, ALSO show up in bricks and mortar Pharmacies. So, why arent people wary of these retail outlets? Easy media and the original manufacturers hype. Of course theyd rather sell all the online buyers genuine drugs at a much higher rate.

As for the best way to tell a safe online Pharmacy, look for a toll free phone number and other means of contact, for following up orders, requesting cancellations, refunds or complaints. If they have these, they can hardly be surviving by selling inferior products. Check out the contacts first if you wish to make sure theyre genuine.

This article is written in the spirit of assisting those who have a need for prescription drugs but are unable to, or have difficulty in, financing their urgent needs. Generic drugs are safe, in the main and online pharmacies are honest and helpful, also in the main. Action is continually being taken against pharmacies (both online and on the street), which sell inferior products. Hopefully we will soon have worldwide pharmacy access, which all people can trust and take advantage of.

The 2006 Edition of Steve Brennan's popular Affiliates Bible - The Affiliate Guide Book - is available now. He operates a number of Affiliate websites including Cheapest Viagra Online-Plus